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Sharpe, M. J., Chang, C. Y., Liu, M. A., Batchelor, H. M., Mueller, L. E., Jones, J. L., . . . Schoenbaum, G. (2017). Dopamine transients are sufficient and necessary for acquisition of model-based associations. Nature Neuroscience, 20(5), 735–742. doi:10.1038/nn.4538. Day JJ, Wheeler RA, Roitman MF, Carelli RM (2006) Nucleus accumbens neurons encode Pavlovian approach behaviors: evidence from an autoshaping paradigm. Eur J Neurosci 23:1341–1351. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04654.x McGinty VB, Lardeux S, Taha SA, Kim JJ, Nicola SM (2013) Invigoration of reward seeking by cue and proximity encoding in the nucleus accumbens. Neuron 78:910–922. 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.04.010

The extinction test is a great approach, but the test is conducted on a separate day after the end of training. This required unplugging and replugging rats, and as noted above the authors are not able to identify stably recorded units across sessions. Is there a justification for the extinction test not immediately follow the final training session to overcome these limitations?Another goal of this article is to encourage applied research on ST in horses. As a general rule, it’s prudent to be cautious about extrapolating findings from laboratory studies to applied animal training. With respect to ST, many laboratory experiments are set-up to encourage a high incidence of ST and may not represent real-life situations that concern animal trainers and behaviorists. What is needed in horses is a systematic description of ST behavior, identification of contexts that affect the emergence of ST, and recognition of individuals that are at risk for ST responses.

All statistical comparisons were performed using a Wilcoxon signed rank test (within-group comparisons) or a Wilcoxon rank sum test (across-group comparisons). Where appropriate, p-values are reported after correction for multiple comparisons by the Holm-Sidak method; an adjusted p< 0.05 was considered significant, and p< 0.1 (adjusted and/or unadjusted) was considered a trend toward significance. All regressions are linear and computed using the least-squares method. ResultsKo, C. H., Liu, G. C., Hsiao, S., Yen, J. Y., Yang, M. J., Lin, W. C., . . . Chen, C. S. (2009). Brain activities associated with gaming urge of online gaming addiction. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(7), 739–747. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.09.012. Deroche-Gamonet, V., Belin, D., & Piazza, P. V. (2004). Evidence for addiction-like behavior in the rat. Science, 305(5686), 1014–1017. doi:10.1126/science.1099020. is usually a biologically significant stimulus (e.g., food, pain) that can elicit a specific response without any training. During Pavlovian conditioning procedures, the US follows presentation of the conditional stimulus (CS or cue). Unconditional response (UR)

Meyer, P. J., Cogan, E. S., & Robinson, T. E. (2014). The form of a conditioned stimulus can influence the degree to which it acquires incentive motivational properties. PLoS One, 9(6), e98163. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0098163. In rats, ST is very common when a moving lever predicts food; animals will approach and manipulate the lever before approaching the food-delivery location. In contrast, when a sound predicts food, rats nearly always show GT and move directly to the food-delivery location. The reasons for this difference are unclear; the different cues are equally effective predictors of food, but only some (the lever) acquire incentive value and can function as a conditioned reinforcer. [18]Uncertainty also refers to variability in the value of the reward, for example if the cue is sometimes followed by a small, low value reward, and at other times by a large, high value reward. ST responses increase with uncertainty, especially when it combines uncertainty in both partial reinforcement and reward value. [24] Cummings, J. L. (1991). Behavioral complications of drug treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Journal of American Geriatrics Society, 39(7), 708–716.