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Ziderman, I.I. (1986). "Purple dye made from shellfish in antiquity". Review of Progress in Coloration. 16: 46–52. doi: 10.1111/j.1478-4408.1986.tb03743.x. a b c d e f g Sukenik, Naama; Iluz, David; Amar, Zohar; Varvak, Alexander; Shamir, Orit; Ben-Yosef, Erez (28 January 2021). "Early evidence of royal purple dyed textile from Timna Valley (Israel)". PLOS ONE. 16 (1): e0245897. Bibcode: 2021PLoSO..1645897S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245897. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7842898. PMID 33507987. By the fourth century AD, sumptuary laws in Rome had been tightened so much that only the Roman emperor was permitted to wear Tyrian purple. [4] As a result, 'purple' is sometimes used as a metonym for the office (e.g. the phrase 'donned the purple' means 'became emperor'). The production of Tyrian purple was tightly controlled in the succeeding Byzantine Empire and subsidized by the imperial court, which restricted its use for the colouring of imperial silks. [9] Later (9thcentury), a child born to a reigning emperor was said to be porphyrogenitos, " born in the purple". [10] Perry G (1810–1811). Arcana, or, The museum of natural history …. London, England: James Stratford. p.Plate XXIII: Genus: Triplex.

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Porphyrogennetos". The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 1991. p.1701. ISBN 0-195-04652-8. Variations in colors of "Tyrian purple" from different snails are related to the presence of indigo dye (blue), 6-bromoindigo (purple), and the red 6,6′-dibromoindigo. Additional changes in color can be induced by debromination from light exposure (as is the case for Tekhelet) or by heat processing. [36] The final shade of purple is decided by chromatogram, which can be identified by HPLC analysis in a single measurement: indigotin (IND) and indirubin (INR). The two are found in plant sources such as woad ( Isatis tinctoria L.) and the indigo plant ( Indigofera tinctoria L), as well as in several species of shellfish. [2] a b c d St Clair K (2016). The Secret Lives of Colour. London: John Murray. pp.162–164. ISBN 9781473630819. OCLC 936144129. Cunliffe, Barry (2008). Europe between the Oceans: 9000BC – AD1000. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p.241. Some [ who?] speculate that the dye extracted from the Bolinus brandaris is known as argaman ( ארגמן) in Biblical Hebrew. Another dye extracted from a related sea snail, Hexaplex trunculus, produced a blue colour after light exposure which could be the one known as tekhelet ( תְּכֵלֶת), used in garments worn for ritual purposes. [11] Production from sea snails [ edit ] Two shells of Bolinus brandaris, the spiny dye-murex, a source of the dyeMathews GM, Iredale T (May 1912). " "Perry's Arcanda" – an overlooked work". The Victorian Naturalist. 29 (1): 7–16. ; see p. 11. For chemistry of Tyrian purple, see 6,6′-Dibromoindigo. Fabrics dyed in the current era from different species of sea snail. The colors in this photograph may not represent them precisely. Reese, David S. (1987). "Palaikastro Shells and Bronze Age Purple-Dye Production in the Mediterranean Basin," Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens, 82, 201–206

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McGovern, P. E. and Michel, R. H. "Royal Purple dye: tracing the chemical origins of the industry". Analytical Chemistry 1985, 57, 1514A–1522A a b Radwin, G. E.; D'Attilio, A. (1986). Murex shells of the world. An illustrated guide to the Muricidae. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p.93. 284pp incl 192figs. & 32pls.Kassinger, Ruth G. (6 February 2003). Dyes: From Sea Snails to Synthetics. 21st century. ISBN 0-7613-2112-8. Biological pigments were often difficult to acquire, and the details of their production were kept secret by the manufacturers. Tyrian purple is a pigment made from the mucus of several species of Murex snail. Production of Tyrian purple for use as a fabric dye began as early as 1200 BC by the Phoenicians, and was continued by the Greeks and Romans until 1453 AD, with the fall of Constantinople. In the same way as the modern-day Latin alphabet of Phoenician origin, Phoenician purple pigment was spread through the unique Phoenician trading empire. [1] The pigment was expensive and time-consuming to produce, and items colored with it became associated with power and wealth. This popular idea of purple being elite contributes to the modern day wide-spread belief that purple is a "royal color". The color of textiles from this period provides insight into socio-cultural relationships within ancient societies, in addition to providing insights on technological achievements, fashion, social stratification, agriculture and trade connections. [2] Despite their value to archaeological research, textiles are quite rare in the archaeological record. Like any perishable organic material, they are usually subject to rapid decomposition and their preservation over millennia requires exacting conditions to prevent destruction by microorganisms. [2] In 1998, by means of a lengthy trial and error process, a process for dyeing with Tyrian purple was rediscovered. [37] [38] This finding built on reports from the 15th century to the 18th century and explored the biotechnology process behind woad fermentation. It is hypothesized that an alkaline fermenting vat was necessary. An incomplete ancient recipe for Tyrian purple recorded by Pliny the Elder was also consulted. By altering the percentage of sea salt in the dye vat and adding potash, he was able to successfully dye wool a deep purple colour. [39] RHS, UCL and RGB Colors, gamma=1.4, fan2". Azalea Society of America. Archived from the original on 11 March 2007 . Retrieved 15 July 2006. (this gives the RGB value #b80049, which has been converted to #990024 for the sRGB gamma of 2.2) Ramig K, Lavinda O, Szalda DJ, Mironova I, Karimi S, Pozzi F, etal. (June 2015). "The nature of thermochromic effects in dyeings with indigo, 6-bromoindigo, and 6,6′-dibromoindigo, components of Tyrian purple". Dyes and Pigments. 117: 37–48. doi: 10.1016/j.dyepig.2015.01.025.

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Chenciner, Robert (2000). Madder Red: A history of luxury and trade: plant dyes and pigments in world commerce and art. Richmond: Curzon Press. p.295. The Phoenicians established an ancillary production facility on the Iles Purpuraires at Mogador, in Morocco. [20] The sea snail harvested at this western Moroccan dye production facility was Hexaplex trunculus, also known by the older name Murex trunculus. [21] The colour-fast (non-fading) dye was an item of luxury trade, prized by Romans, who used it to colour ceremonial robes. Used as a dye, the color shifts from blue (peak absorption at 590nm, which is yellow-orange) to reddish-purple (peak absorption at 520nm, which is green). [22] It is believed that the intensity of the purple hue improved rather than faded as the dyed cloth aged. Vitruvius mentions the production of Tyrian purple from shellfish. [23] In his History of Animals, Aristotle described the shellfish from which Tyrian purple was obtained and the process of extracting the tissue that produced the dye. [24] Pliny the Elder described the production of Tyrian purple in his Natural History: [25] [b] Because of research by Benkendorff et al. (1999), the Tyrian purple precursor tyrindoleninone is being investigated as a potential antimicrobial agent with uses against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

In 1909, Harvard anthropologist Zelia Nuttall compiled an intensive comparative study on the historical production of the purple dye produced from the carnivorous murex snail, source of the royal purple dye valued higher than gold in the ancient Near East and ancient Mexico. Not only did the people of ancient Mexico use the same methods of production as the Phoenicians, they also valued murex-dyed cloth above all others, as it appeared in codices as the attire of nobility. "Nuttall noted that the Mexican murex-dyed cloth bore a "disagreeable … strong fishy smell, which appears to be as lasting as the color itself." [31] Likewise, the ancient Egyptian Papyrus of Anastasi laments: "The hands of the dyer reek like rotting fish..." [32] So pervasive was this stench that the Talmud specifically granted women the right to divorce any husband who became a dyer after marriage. [33]

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Cooksey CJ (2001). "Tyrian purple: 6,6'-dibromoindigo and related compounds". Molecules. 6 (9): 736–769. doi: 10.3390/60900736. PMC 6236399. The Roman mythographer Julius Pollux, writing in the 2ndcenturyAD, asserted ( Onomasticon I, 45–49) that the purple dye was first discovered by the philosopher Heracles of Tyre, or rather, by his dog, whose mouth was stained purple from chewing on snails along the coast at Tyre. This story was depicted by Peter Paul Rubens in his painting Hercules' Dog Discovers Purple Dye. According to John Malalas, the incident happened during the reign of the legendary King Phoenix of Tyre, the eponymous progenitor of the Phoenicians, and therefore he was the first ruler to wear Tyrian purple and legislate on its use. [26]

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In 2021, archaeologists found surviving wool fibers dyed with royal purple in the Timna Valley in Israel. The find, which was dated to c. 1000 BC, constituted the first direct evidence of fabric dyed with the pigment from antiquity. [34] Murex purple production in North Africa [ edit ] The chemical structure of 6,6′-dibromoindigo, the main component of Tyrian purple