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The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)". Chinese Revolution. 4 June 2013 . Retrieved 2021-05-29. a b Ma, Josephine (17 May 2021). "Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms". South China Morning Post . The People's Republic of China is a one-party state governed by the Marxist–Leninist Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This makes China one of the last countries governed by a communist party. The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a people's democratic dictatorship that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants," that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of democratic centralism," [192] and that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Communist Party of China." [193]

Next into this, is found the great China, whose king is thought to be the greatest prince in the world, and is named Santoa Raia". [17] [18] The Tibetans" (PDF). University of Southern California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-16 . Retrieved 2013-07-20. Waller, Derek J. (1973). The Kiangsi Soviet Republic: Mao and the National Congresses of 1931 and 1934 (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Wiatros-Motyka, Malgorzata (12 April 2023). "Global Electricity Review 2023". Ember . Retrieved 2023-05-19.Qian, Isabelle; Xiao, Muyi; Mozur, Paul; Cardia, Alexander (21 June 2022). "Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State". The New York Times . Retrieved 2022-07-23. Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia. [553] For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty. [554] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective. [555] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. [556] Fenghuang County, an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles [557] Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. "China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century". World Bank Publications . Retrieved 2012-10-22. The country has significant water pollution problems; only 84.8% of China's national surface water was graded suitable for human consumption by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2021. [182] In 2020, a sweeping law was passed by the Chinese government to protect the ecology of the Yangtze River. The new laws include strengthening ecological protection rules for hydropower projects, banning chemical plants within 1 kilometer of the river, relocating polluting industries, severely restricting sand mining as well as a complete fishing ban on all the natural waterways of the river, including all its major tributaries and lakes. [183]

a b Phillips, Tom (24 October 2017). "Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China's change to constitution". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-10-24 . Retrieved 2017-10-24. In the early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations. [73] The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and Later Jin incursions led to an exhausted treasury. [74] In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. [75] In 1912, the monarchy was overthrown and the Republic of China was established. The Republic saw consistent conflict for most of the mid-20th century, including a civil war between the Kuomintang government and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which began in 1927, as well as the Second Sino-Japanese War that began in 1937 and continued until 1945, therefore becoming involved in World War II. The latter led to a temporary stop in the civil war and numerous Japanese atrocities such as the Nanjing Massacre, which continue to influence China–Japan relations. In 1949, the CCP established control over China as the Kuomintang fled to Taiwan. Early communist rule saw two major projects: the Great Leap Forward, which resulted in a sharp economic decline and massive famine; and the Cultural Revolution, a movement to purge all non-communist elements of Chinese society that led to mass violence and persecution. Beginning in 1978, the Chinese government launched economic reforms that moved the country away from planned economics, but political reforms were cut short by the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. Economic reform continued to strengthen the nation's economy in the following decades while raising China's standard of living significantly. May, Timothy (2012). The Mongol Conquests in World History. Reaktion Books. p.1211. ISBN 978-1-86189-971-2. Lui, Swithin (19 May 2022). "Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 2022-05-23 . Retrieved 2022-05-24.

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Further information: Great Green Wall (China) Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for mainland China [145] The president is the ceremonial state representative, elected by the NPC. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader. The premier is the head of government, with Li Qiang being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the State Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, state councilors, and the heads of ministries and commissions. [192] The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's " united front" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by Wang Huning, fourth-ranking member of the PSC. [207] Ringen, Stein (2016). The Perfect Dictatorship: China in the 21st Century. Hong Kong University Press. p.3. ISBN 978-9-888-20893-7. Main articles: Languages of China and List of endangered languages in China Lihaozhai High School in Jianshui, Yunnan. The sign is in Hani (Latin alphabet), Nisu ( Yi script), and Chinese. Tien, Hung-mao (1991). "The Constitutional Conundrum and the Need for Reform". In Feldman, Harvey (ed.). Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China. M.E. Sharpe. p.3. ISBN 978-0-87332-880-7.

Alexander Baturo; Robert Elgie (2019). The Politics of Presidential Term Limits. Oxford University Press. p.263. ISBN 978-0-19-883740-4.Main article: Names of China China (today's Guangdong), Mangi (inland of Xanton), and Cataio (inland of China and Chequan, and including the capital Cambalu, Xandu, and a marble bridge) are all shown as separate regions on this 1570 map by Abraham Ortelius.

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