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Smith, I., & Furness, T. (2006). Improving traceability in food processing and distribution. Abington, Cambridge, England: Woodhead. Tacon, A. G. J. & Metian, M. Feed matters: satisfying the feed demand of aquaculture. Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac. 23, 1–10 (2015). Welch, A. et al. From fishing to the sustainable farming of carnivorous marine finfish. Rev. Fish. Sci. 18, 235–247 (2010). There was no difference in textural quality among the smoked products neither in storage day ( p = 0.120) nor treatment per se ( p = 0.635), while the compression force was significantly affected by the fillet height ( p< 0.001). In terms of gaping, the control fish had the highest gaping score on the last sampling day (ice: 1.0 ± 0.7; RSW: 1.0 ± 1.0; control: 2.0 ± 1.1). Therefore, the effect of treatment method on both texture and gaping seemed to apply only to the unprocessed fillets in this experiment. Hansen et al. 35 stated that textural deterioration occurs in cold-smoked salmon due to autolytic deterioration of tissue which develops rancid and oxidised off-flavours. However, the decline in textural properties for all smoked salmon groups was not apparent in our study, and is in agreement with earlier studies which found that shear force of cold-smoked salmon was stable during cold storage 36, 37. Enzyme and microbial activity Graham, J., Johnston, W. A. & Nicholson, F. J. Ice in Fisheries (FAO Fisheries Technical Papers). Food Agric. Organ. U. N. 331, 47–53 (1993).
There was an effect of storage day ( p< 0.001) but not of treatment ( p = 0.747) on drip loss in raw fillets (Fig. 2c). Drip loss increased steadily to 1.4–1.5% for all three groups. The product yield after smoking for all fillets was 94% and there was no effect of treatment observed ( p = 0.737). Drip loss of smoked fillets increased to 6.5% after smoking for all groups and plateaued throughout storage. There was also no difference in salt contents at the end of storage ( p = 0.733; RSW: 3.2 ± 0.4%, ice: 3.1 ± 0.7%, control: 3.0 ± 0.2%). The large increase in drip loss before and after dry salting and cold-smoking was mainly due to the diffusion and evaporation of water from the muscle to the surface. Since the drip loss of fillets from all treatments were similar, the observed increase in drip loss was only affected by storage duration ( p< 0.001). Therefore, the choice of storage regime on whole fish seems unlikely to affect the drip loss of cold-smoked fillets. Comparison of salt uptake indicated that iced fish had a consistent salt content at 0.1%, while RSW held fish almost doubled from 0.1 to 0.2% during 4 days of storage, and further gained to 0.3% after RSW removal (Fig. 2d, storage days: p< 0.001, treatment: p = 0.05). The effect of storage duration was also significantly influenced by the treatment method (interaction: p< 0.001). The results consonates with other studies where chinook salmon had a salt content of 1.1% after 7 days in RSW and 0.1% on ice 7. Himelbloom et al. 11 further showed that salt content of pink salmon stored in chilled seawater (CSW) increased to 0.5% during 10 days of storage, while iced salmon maintained at 0.1%. In RSW systems, the addition of salt in water causes the structure of pure water to be disrupted as salt dissociates into Na + and Cl − ions, increasing the ion–dipole interaction between salt and water. The salt gained on day 7 observed in the present study after the removal of RSW possibly signifies that the retained Na + and Cl − ions from seawater that was absorbed continued to diffuse into the fish muscle and binded with the muscle proteins. As such, the drip lost after removal of fish from RSW probably contains mainly water, likely from the free water located outside the myofibrillar network that can be easily lost from the tissue. Nevertheless, the application of salt uptake in Atlantic salmon has been considered relatively unimportant due to its large size and subcutaneous fat layer which hinders salt migration 22. Hence salt uptake during RSW storage is not considered a problem as it is also dependent on other factors like species, lipid and salt content, temperature, physiological state and storage duration 10. Froehlich, H. E., Jacobsen, N. S., Essington, T. E., Clavelle, T. & Halpern, B. S. Avoiding the ecological limits of forage fish for fed aquaculture. Nat. Sustain. 1, 298–303 (2018). Birkeland, S. & Skåra, T. Cold smoking of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) fillets with smoke condensate—an alternative processing technology for the production of smoked salmon. J. Food Sci. 73, 326–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2008.00850.x (2008).Duun, A. S. Superchilling of muscle food. Storage stability and quality aspects of salmon (Salmo salar), cod (Gadus morhua) and pork. Norwegian University of Science and Technology (2008). Tacon, A. G. J. & Metian, M. Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285, 146–158 (2008). Dana, W., & Ivo, W. (2008). Computer image analysis of seed shape and seed color for flax cultivar description. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 61, 126–135. Forsberg, O., & Guttormsen, A. (2006). A pigmentation model for farmed Atlantic salmon: Nonlinear regression analysis of published experimental data. Aquaculture, 253, 415–420. Sargent, J. & Tacon, A. Development of farmed fish: a nutritionally necessary alternative to meat. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 58, 377–383 (1999).
Roth, B. et al. Crowding, pumping and stunning of Atlantic salmon, the subsequent effect on pH and rigor mortis. Aquaculture 326–329, 178–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2011.11.005 (2012). Barbut, S. (2001). Effect of illumination source on the appearance of fresh meat cuts. Meat Science, 59, 187–191. Schubring, R. Themal stability, texture, liquid holding capacity and colour of smoked salmon on retail level. Thermochim. Acta 445, 168–178 (2006).Contradictory results have been reported when fish were stored in RSW and on ice possibly due to the difference between laboratory and industrial based experimental scale 43. The initial microbiological activity observed right after slaughter further suggested that the fish might have blood remnants remaining in the flesh after being bled in the bleeding tanks at the land-based slaughtering facility. The addition of seawater and seawater ice into the tank was also manually done as compared to mechanical procedures in commercial settings. Hence the rate of spoilage for the RSW fish was more pronounced in this study which affirms how easy contamination can occur. However, these problems should not arise in commercial settings due to more stringent rules with regards to filtering, ozonating and chlorinating of process water. Industries also use CO 2-based RSW tanks which improves energy efficiency, suppresses bacterial growth, and enhances sensory attributes of fish 8. Good hygiene has been posed as a possible challenge posed by closed RSW tanks as spoilage of fish may affect the entire catch 44. Therefore, a well-designed RSW system is important and proper considerations must be implemented including good insulation of tanks, evenly distributed and controlled temperatures, constant supply of clean seawater and adequate cleaning and disinfection of the factory after every harvest 10. This ensures good recirculation of water, lessens microbial spoilage, maintains good quality and offers the flexibility for fishing vessels to travel to further distances. Maldini, M., Nonnis Marzano, F., Fortes, G. G., Papa, R., & Gandolfi, G. (2006). Fish and seafood traceability based on AFLP markers: Elaboration of a species database. Aquaculture, 261, 487–494. Cardinal, M. et al. Sensory characteristics of cold-smoked Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) from European market and relationships with chemical, physical and microbiological measurements. Food Res. Int. 37, 181–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2003.12.006 (2004). Fogarty, C. et al. Spoilage indicator bacteria in farmed Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) stored on ice for 10 days. Food Microbiol. 77, 38–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2018.08.001 (2019). This study presented several quality parameters examined on salmon stored in RSW throughout the whole supply chain. In comparison to traditional chilling methods, whole fish stored in RSW had an overall increase in water and salt uptake, with better WHC before filleting. After filleting, better gaping scores, softer texture, lower cathepsin B + L activity and higher microbiological growth were observed. Although the raw fillets from RSW fish had a softer texture, this was likely unaffected by the enzymatic process of cathepsins B + L causing postmortem degradation. The microbiological analysis on raw fillets suggested that RSW fish had a shorter shelf life, but this is not representative of commercial practices due to the experimental scale. Drip loss and colour of both raw and smoked fillets from the 2 treatments were comparable, and storage duration was the main determinant affecting these parameters. These results indicate that RSW-stored fish is a viable method in minimizing the need for ice storage and land transportation, thereby introducing economical benefits and contributing to a positive impact on the environment. The idea of shifting fish slaughter from land to sea further introduces several advantages including reduced transportation costs, reduced fish diseases and mortality, increased slaughtering capacity and improved fish welfare. Therefore, the cutting-edge concept of slaughter vessels can provide great potential to increase its competitive advantage in the salmon industry. Industries seeking to understand more about the quality changes during storage of fish in RSW tanks, how this differs from the traditional chilling method on ice and how this affects fillet quality after primary and secondary processing to cold-smoked fillets can consider the results of this study during the formularization and streamlining of their processes.
Barbut, S. (2003). Effect to three commercial light sources on acceptability of salmon, snapper and sea bass fillets. Aquaculture, 236, 321–329. For drip loss calculation, whole fish from all groups were weighed on days 0, 2, 4 and 7. Raw fillets from the ice and RSW group were periodically weighed on t = 7, 15, 22 days while smoked fillets on t = 7, 8, 9, 16, 23, 29 days. Fillets from the control group were weighed on the last sampling day. Drip loss (%) was calculated using the formula ((m 0 − m t)/m 0) × 100, where m 0 is the initial weight (g) and m t the weight (g) on the sampling day t. Quevedo, R., Carlos, L. G., Aguilera, J. M., & Cadoche, L. (2002). Description of food surfaces and microstructural changes using fractal image texture analysis. Journal of Food Engineering, 53, 361–371. Ytrestøyl, T., Aas, T. S. & Åsgård, T. Utilisation of feed resources in production of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) in Norway. Aquaculture 448, 365–374 (2015). Magdic, D., & Dobricevic, N. (2007). Statistical evaluation of dynamic changes of ‘Idared’ apples colour during storage. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus, 72, 311–316.
From the Package
Jeffriess, B. A Review of Tuna Growth Performance in Ranching and Farming Operations (ASBTIA, 2015). Cottrell, R. S., Blanchard, J. L., Halpern, B. S., Metian, M. & Froehlich, H. E. Global adoption of novel aquaculture feeds could substantially reduce forage fish demand by 2030. Nat. Food 1, 301–308 (2020).
Yam, K., & Papadakis, S. (2004). A simple digital imaging method for measuring and analyzing color of food surfaces. Journal of Food Engineering, 61, 137–142. Sun, D. (2000). Inspecting pizza topping percentage and distribution by a computer vision method. Journal of Food Engineering, 44, 245–249. Kris-Etherton, P. M., Grieger, J. A. & Etherton, T. D. Dietary reference intakes for DHA and EPA. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 81, 99–104 (2009). Papadakis, S., Abdul-Malek, S., Kamdem, E., & Jam, L. (2000). A versatile and inexpensive technique for measuring color of foods. Food Technology, 54, 48–51.
Himelbloom, B. H., Crapo, C., Brown, E. K., Babbitt, J. & Reppond, K. Pink salmon ( Oncorhynchus Gorbuscha) quality during ice and chilled seawater storage. J. Food Qual. 17, 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4557.1994.tb00143.x (1994). Texture analysis was measured by a puncture test using a Texture Analyzer TA-XT plus (Stable Micro Systems, UK) equipped with a 12.7 mm flat end cylindrical plunger to poke three consecutive punctures of each muscle sample above the mid-line of the Norwegian Quality Cut (NQC, Fig. 1b). The force (N) was recorded in a texture profile curve operated by the Texture Exponent light software ( www.stablemicrosystems.com/, Stable Micro Systems) with a 5 kg load cell at a rate of 2 mm s −1 until the probe reached 80% of the fillet height. Salt content Misimi, E., Mathiassen, J. R., & Erikson, U. (2007). Computer vision-based sorting of atlantic salmon (salmo salar) fillets according to their color lever. Journal of Food Science, 71, s30–s35. Erikson, U., Misimi, E. & Gallart-Jornet, L. Superchilling of rested Atlantic salmon: different chilling strategies and effects of fish and fillet quality. Food Chem. 127, 1427–1437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.01.036 (2011). Hansen, L. T., Røntved, S. D. & Huss, H. H. Microbiological quality and shelf life of cold-smoked salmon from three different processing plants. Food Microbiol. 15, 137–150. https://doi.org/10.1006/fmic.1997.0148 (1998).
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