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Finn AK, Whistler JL (December 2001). "Endocytosis of the mu opioid receptor reduces tolerance and a cellular hallmark of opiate withdrawal". Neuron. 32 (5): 829–39. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00517-7. PMID 11738029. S2CID 16396686. Production of thebaine and oripavine". April 20, 2004. Archived from the original on September 5, 2012 . Retrieved May 10, 2007.
The production methods have not significantly changed since ancient times. Through selective breeding of the Papaver somniferum plant, the content of the phenanthrene alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. In modern times, much of the thebaine, which often serves as the raw material for the synthesis for oxycodone, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, and other semisynthetic opiates, originates from extracting Papaver orientale or Papaver bracteatum. a b P. G. Kritikos & S. P. Papadaki (January 1, 1967). "The early history of the poppy and opium". Journal of the Archaeological Society of Athens. Ouchterlony, John (1844). The Chinese war: an account of all the operations of the British forces from the commencement to the Treaty of Nanking. London: Saunders and Otley.In June 2007, the council launched a "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system within Afghan village-based poppy for medicine projects: the idea promotes the economic diversification by redirecting proceeds from the legal cultivation of poppy and production of poppy-based medicines. [143] There has been criticism of the Senlis report findings by Macfarlan Smith, who argue that though they produce morphine in Europe, they were never asked to contribute to the report. [144] Cultivation in the UK [ edit ] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sourcesin this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics – 1950 Issue 3 – 003". United Nations: Office on Drugs and Crime . Retrieved May 5, 2021.
During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make kompot (" Polish heroin"), and poppy seeds were used to produce koknar, an opiate. [99] Obsolescence [ edit ] Apothecary vessel for storage of opium as a pharmaceutical, Germany, 18th or 19th century A little of it, taken as much as a grain of ervum is a pain-easer, and a sleep-causer, and a digester...but being drank too much it hurts, making men lethargical, and it kills. Opiates (e.g., morphine, codeine, and thebaine) exert their main effects on the brain and spinal cord. Their principal action is to relieve or suppress pain. The drugs also alleviate anxiety; induce relaxation, drowsiness, and sedation; and may impart a state of euphoria or other enhanced mood. Opiates also have important physiological effects: they slow respiration and heartbeat, suppress the cough reflex, and relax the smooth muscles of the gastrointestinal tract. Opiates are addictive drugs; they produce a physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms that can only be assuaged by continued use of the drug. With chronic use, the body develops a tolerance to opiates, so that progressively larger doses are needed to achieve the same effect. The higher opiates—heroin and morphine—are more addictive than opium or codeine. Opiates are classified as narcotics because they relieve pain, induce stupor and sleep, and produce addiction. The habitual use of opium produces physical and mental deterioration and shortens life. An acute overdose of opium causes respiratory depression which can be fatal. Letter from Macfarlan Smith". Archived from the original on March 22, 2009 . Retrieved March 21, 2010.
Office of the Commissioner. "Legislation – Controlled Substances Act". Fda.gov . Retrieved January 25, 2017. Pablo Bartholomew (1996). "Opium for the masses: photo essay on cultivation of opium in India". Archived from the original on July 1, 2007 . Retrieved June 15, 2007. ROUGE PUR COUTURE NU MUSE: Propylene Glycol Dibenzoate , Octyldodecanol , Pentaerythrityl Tetraisostearate , Stearyl/Ppg-3 Myristyl Ether Dimer Dilinoleate , Neopentyl Glycol Diheptanoate , Polyethylene , Bis-Diglyceryl Polyacyladipate-2 , Polybutene , Talc , Hydrogenated Coco-Glycerides , Candelilla Cera / Candelilla Wax , Cera Microcristallina / Microcrystalline Wax , Cera Alba / Beeswax , Alumina , Silica Silylate , Pentaerythrityl Tetra-Di-T-Butyl Hydroxyhydrocinnamate , Calcium Sodium Borosilicate , Silica , Calcium Aluminum Borosilicate , Colophonium / Rosin , Synthetic Fluorphlogopite , Aluminum Hydroxide , Magnesium Silicate , Glycerin , Tin Oxide , Parfum / Fragrancemay Contain: Mica, Ci 77891 / Titanium Dioxide, Ci 77491, Ci 77492, Ci 77499 / Iron Oxides, Ci 45410 / Red 28 Lake, Ci 15850 / Red 7, Ci 15850 / Red 6, Ci 15850 / Red 7 Lake, Ci 15985 / Yellow 6 Lake, Ci 45380 / Red 22 Lake, Ci 19140 / Yellow 5 Lake, Ci 17200 / Red 33 Lake, Ci 77742 / Manganese Violet, Ci 77120 / Barium Sulfate, Ci 42090 / Blue 1 Lake, Ci 75470 / Carmine
Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R (August 31, 1998). "Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products—evidence for 'the poppy seed defence' ". Forensic Science International. 96 (1): 29–38. doi: 10.1016/S0379-0738(98)00107-8. PMID 9800363.Martin, Steven. The Art of Opium Antiques. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007. Photographs and history of Chinese and Vietnamese opium-smoking paraphernalia. a b c M J Brownstein (June 15, 1993). "A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (12): 5391–5393. Bibcode: 1993PNAS...90.5391B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.12.5391. PMC 46725. PMID 8390660. Speer, William (1870). The oldest and the newest empire: China and the United States. Hartford, Conn., S. S. Scranton and company; Philadelphia, Parmelee & co.; [etc., etc.] Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs. Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981
a b Commissioner Jesse B. Cook (June 1931). "San Francisco's Old Chinatown". San Francisco Police and Peace Officers' Journal . Retrieved September 22, 2007. The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil, the "joy plant". [11] [12] Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium. [1] Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods with an iron scoop; they called the juice aratpa-pal, possibly the root of Papaver. [13] Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians. Carstairs C. (2006). "Jailed for Possession: Illegal Drug Use, Regulation, and Power in Canada, 1920–61". Archived from the original on January 25, 2003. Fueled in part by the 1729 ban on madak, which at first effectively exempted pure opium as a potentially medicinal product, the smoking of pure opium became more popular in the 18th century. In 1736, the smoking of pure opium was described by Huang Shujing, involving a pipe made from bamboo rimmed with silver, stuffed with palm slices and hair, fed by a clay bowl in which a globule of molten opium was held over the flame of an oil lamp. This elaborate procedure, requiring the maintenance of pots of opium at just the right temperature for a globule to be scooped up with a needle-like skewer for smoking, formed the basis of a craft of "paste-scooping" by which servant girls could become prostitutes as the opportunity arose. [47] Chinese diaspora in the West [ edit ]
Michot, Yahya. L’opium et le café. Traduction d’un texte arabe anonyme et exploration de l'opiophagie ottomane (Beirut: Albouraq, 2008) ISBN 978-2-84161-397-7 Benjamin Pui-Nin Mo & E. Leong Way (October 1, 1966). "An Assessment Of Inhalation As A Mode Of Administration Of Heroin By Addicts". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 154 (1): 142–151. PMID 5924312 . Retrieved June 6, 2007. Bradley, James (2009). The Imperial Cruise: a secret history of empire and war. Little, Brown and Company. pp. 274–275. ISBN 978-0-316-00895-2. Opium prohibition in China began in 1729, yet was followed by nearly two centuries of increasing opium use. A massive destruction of opium by an emissary of the Chinese Daoguang Emperor in an attempt to stop opium smuggling by the British led to the First Opium War (1839–1842), in which Britain defeated China. After 1860, opium use continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China. By 1905, an estimated 25 percent of the male population were regular consumers of the drug. Recreational use of opium elsewhere in the world remained rare into late in the 19th century, as indicated by ambivalent reports of opium usage. [44] In 1906, 41,000 tons were produced, but because 39,000 tons of that year's opium were consumed in China, overall usage in the rest of the world was much lower. [48] These figures from 1906 have been criticized as overestimates. [49] A Chinese opium house; photographed in 1902 This poppy is grown as an agricultural crop on a large scale, for one of three primary purposes. The first is to produce seeds that are eaten by humans, commonly known as poppy seed. The second is to produce opium for use mainly by the pharmaceutical industry. [4] The third is to produce other alkaloids, mainly thebaine and oripavine, that are processed by pharmaceutical companies into drugs such as hydrocodone and oxycodone. [4] Each of these goals has special breeds that are targeted at one of these businesses, and breeding efforts (including biotechnological ones) are continually underway. [4] [5] [6] A comparatively small amount of P.somniferum is also produced commercially for ornamental purposes.
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