QIANDI Science Chemistry Molecule DNA Infinity 925 Silver Ring Adjustable Ring

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Original X-ray diffraction image". Oregon State Library. Archived from the original on 30 January 2009 . Retrieved 6 February 2011. Astbury WT (1947). "X-ray studies of nucleic acids". Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology (1): 66–76. PMID 20257017. Archived from the original on 5 July 2014. Reprinted in German as: Koltzoff NK (1928). "Physikalisch-chemische Grundlagen der Morphologie" [The physical-chemical basis of morphology]. Biologisches Zentralblatt (in German). 48 (6): 345–69. Warren M (21 February 2019). "Four new DNA letters double life's alphabet". Nature. 566 (7745): 436. Bibcode: 2019Natur.566..436W. doi: 10.1038/d41586-019-00650-8. PMID 30809059.

DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens, which change the DNA sequence. Mutagens include oxidizing agents, alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays. The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. [83] On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. [84] A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. [85] Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations, insertions, deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations. [86] These mutations can cause cancer. Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. [87] [88] DNA damages that are naturally occurring, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging. [89] [90] [91]Pictures and Illustrations: Crystallographic photo of Sodium Thymonucleate, Type B. "Photo 51." May 1952". scarc.library.oregonstate.edu . Retrieved 18 May 2023. Wilkins M (2003). The third man of the double helix the autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Cambridge, England: University Press. ISBN 0-19-860665-6. Harrison PM, Hegyi H, Balasubramanian S, Luscombe NM, Bertone P, Echols N, Johnson T, Gerstein M (February 2002). "Molecular fossils in the human genome: identification and analysis of the pseudogenes in chromosomes 21 and 22". Genome Research. 12 (2): 272–80. doi: 10.1101/gr.207102. PMC 155275. PMID 11827946.

Bernstein H, Payne CM, Bernstein C, Garewal H, Dvorak K (2008). "Cancer and aging as consequences of un-repaired DNA damage". In Kimura H, Suzuki A (eds.). New Research on DNA Damage. New York: Nova Science Publishers. pp.1–47. ISBN 978-1-60456-581-2. Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Foote AD, Thomsen PF, Sveegaard S, Wahlberg M, Kielgast J, Kyhn LA, etal. (2012). "Investigating the potential use of environmental DNA (eDNA) for genetic monitoring of marine mammals". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): e41781. Bibcode: 2012PLoSO...741781F. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041781. PMC 3430683. PMID 22952587. Mulcahy H, Charron-Mazenod L, Lewenza S (November 2008). "Extracellular DNA chelates cations and induces antibiotic resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms". PLOS Pathogens. 4 (11): e1000213. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000213. PMC 2581603. PMID 19023416.Basu HS, Feuerstein BG, Zarling DA, Shafer RH, Marton LJ (October 1988). "Recognition of Z-RNA and Z-DNA determinants by polyamines in solution: experimental and theoretical studies". Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics. 6 (2): 299–309. doi: 10.1080/07391102.1988.10507714. PMID 2482766. Strong M (March 2004). "Protein nanomachines". PLOS Biology. 2 (3): E73. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020073. PMC 368168. PMID 15024422. S2CID 13222080. Job D (November 2002). "Plant biotechnology in agriculture". Biochimie. 84 (11): 1105–10. doi: 10.1016/S0300-9084(02)00013-5. PMID 12595138. Hunt K (17 February 2021). "World's oldest DNA sequenced from a mammoth that lived more than a million years ago". CNN News . Retrieved 17 February 2021. Hebsgaard MB, Phillips MJ, Willerslev E (May 2005). "Geologically ancient DNA: fact or artefact?". Trends in Microbiology. 13 (5): 212–20. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2005.03.010. PMID 15866038.

Ishitsuka Y, Ha T (May 2009). "DNA nanotechnology: a nanomachine goes live". Nature Nanotechnology. 4 (5): 281–82. Bibcode: 2009NatNa...4..281I. doi: 10.1038/nnano.2009.101. PMID 19421208. Astbury WT, Bell FO (1938). "Some recent developments in the X-ray study of proteins and related structures" (PDF). Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. 6: 109–21. doi: 10.1101/sqb.1938.006.01.013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Further information: Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, Molecular models of DNA, and DNA structure From left to right, the structures of A, B and Z-DNA

Spiegelman BM, Heinrich R (October 2004). "Biological control through regulated transcriptional coactivators". Cell. 119 (2): 157–67. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2004.09.037. PMID 15479634. Parkinson GN, Lee MP, Neidle S (June 2002). "Crystal structure of parallel quadruplexes from human telomeric DNA". Nature. 417 (6891): 876–80. Bibcode: 2002Natur.417..876P. doi: 10.1038/nature755. PMID 12050675. S2CID 4422211. Andersen ES, Dong M, Nielsen MM, Jahn K, Subramani R, Mamdouh W, Golas MM, Sander B, Stark H, Oliveira CL, Pedersen JS, Birkedal V, Besenbacher F, Gothelf KV, Kjems J (May 2009). "Self-assembly of a nanoscale DNA box with a controllable lid". Nature. 459 (7243): 73–76. Bibcode: 2009Natur.459...73A. doi: 10.1038/nature07971. hdl: 11858/00-001M-0000-0010-9362-B. PMID 19424153. S2CID 4430815. Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor. They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands. [132] These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.