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In a 2019 meta-analysis of 21 studies and 222,592 participants, an increased dietary intake of either vitamin K1 or K2 was linked with a moderately reduced risk of coronary heart disease, although not with mortality ( 8). Nikita Jadhav 1 Saiprasad Ajgaonkar 1 Praful Saha 1 Pranay Gurav 1 Amitkumar Pandey 1 Vivek Basudkar 1 Yash Gada 1 Sangita Panda 1 Shashank Jadhav 2 Dilip Mehta 2 Sujit Nair 1* Walther B, Karl JP, Booth SL, Boyaval P (July 2013). "Menaquinones, bacteria, and the food supply: the relevance of dairy and fermented food products to vitamin K requirements". Advances in Nutrition. 4 (4): 463–73. doi: 10.3945/an.113.003855. PMC 3941825. PMID 23858094. The mechanism of action of vitamin K 2 is similar to vitamin K 1. K vitamins were first recognized as a factor required for coagulation, but the functions performed by this vitamin group were revealed to be much more complex. K vitamins play an essential role as cofactor for the enzyme γ-glutamyl carboxylase, which is involved in vitamin K-dependent carboxylation of the gla domain in "Gla proteins" (i.e., in conversion of peptide-bound glutamic acid (Glu) to γ-carboxy glutamic acid (Gla) in these proteins). [9] Carboxylation reaction – the Vitamin K cycle Barnes C, Newall F, Ignjatovic V, Wong P, Cameron F, Jones G, Monagle P (April 2005). "Reduced bone density in children on long-term warfarin". Pediatric Research. 57 (4): 578–81. doi: 10.1203/01.pdr.0000155943.07244.04. PMID 15695604.
a b Shearer MJ, Newman P (October 2008). "Metabolism and cell biology of vitamin K". Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 100 (4): 530–47. doi: 10.1160/th08-03-0147. PMID 18841274. S2CID 7743991. One study found that people who took in at least 32 micrograms per day of vitamin K2 in their diet were 50% less likely to die from heart disease related to hardened arteries. People in that study didn’t consume any vitamin K1. An experiment was performed by Brugè et al. to study the effect of K2-7 supplementation with extra-virgin olive oil on carboxylation of OC. Olive oil enriched with 45 or 90µg of K2-7 was administered for 2weeks in 12 healthy volunteers in Italy. The results demonstrated significant increase in cOC:ucOC ratio with 90µg of K2-7 which improves bone mineralization; however, olive oil with 45µg K2-7 did not show a biological effect. Hence, it was concluded that extra-virgin olive oil enriched with K2-7 can improve bone mineralization ( Brugè et al., 2011). Dalmeijer et al. ( Dalmeijer et al., 2012) conducted a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study for 12weeks to investigate the effect of K2-7 on carboxylation of matrix Gla protein (MGP). Sixty patients that were administered with 180 or 360µg showed dose-dependent decrease in dp-ucMGP; however, no change was observed in dp-cMGP and total ucMGP level ( Dalmeijer et al., 2012). One of the main regulating proteins in dental health is osteocalcin — the same protein that is critical to bone metabolism and is activated by vitamin K2 ( 15).All K vitamins are similar in structure: they share a " quinone" ring, but differ in the length and degree of saturation of the carbon tail and the number of repeating isoprene units in the "side chain". [8] [ full citation needed] The number of repeating units is indicated in the name of the particular menaquinone (e.g., MK-4 means that four isoprene units are repeated in the carbon tail). The chain length influences lipid solubility and thus transport to different target tissues. Many bacteria synthesize menaquinones from chorismic acid. They use it as a part of the electron transport chain, playing a similar role as other quinones such as ubiquinone. Oxygen, heme, and menaquinones are needed for many species of lactic acid bacteria to conduct respiration. [33]
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) (2017). "Dietary reference values for vitamin K". EFSA J. 15 (5): e04780 See 2.2.1. Biochemical functions. doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4780. PMC 7010012. PMID 32625486. Booth SL, Suttie JW (May 1998). "Dietary intake and adequacy of vitamin K". The Journal of Nutrition. 128 (5): 785–8. doi: 10.1093/jn/128.5.785. PMID 9566982. This article needs additional medical references for verification. Please help improve this article by adding appropriate references. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. A meta-analysis of 16 studies in 6425 postmenopausal women found that those taking vitamin K2 supplements had a positive effect on bone mineralization and increased bone strength. ( 11).
Shearer, Martin J.; Newman, Paul (March 2014). "Recent trends in the metabolism and cell biology of vitamin K with special reference to vitamin K cycling and MK-4 biosynthesis". Journal of Lipid Research. 55 (3): 345–362. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R045559. ISSN 0022-2275. PMC 3934721. PMID 24489112. In Japan and other parts of Asia, one kind of vitamin K2 (MK-4), is used as a treatment for osteoporosis. Improves heart health
Vitamin K is a class of vitamins, like citrus fruits are a class of fruits,” Zumpano says. “Think of oranges, grapefruits, limes and lemons. They may grow on different trees and have different tastes, but at the end of the day, they’re all citrus fruits. It makes sense for them to be grouped together because they share a lot of common traits.” Several human Gla-containing proteins synthesized in several different types of tissues have been discovered: Vitamin K has a very low potential for toxicity. This is why there is no established Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) set for vitamin K. There is no known toxicity for vitamin K1 or K2 from food or supplements.Gut bacteria in your large intestine also produce vitamin K2. Some evidence suggests that broad-spectrum antibiotics contribute to K2 deficiency ( 22). Pucaj K, Rasmussen H, Møller M, Preston T (September 2011). "Safety and toxicological evaluation of a synthetic vitamin K2, menaquinone-7". Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods. 21 (7): 520–32. doi: 10.3109/15376516.2011.568983. PMC 3172146. PMID 21781006. Vitamin K activates proteins that play a role in blood clotting, calcium metabolism, and heart health. Suttie JW (1995). "The importance of menaquinones in human nutrition". Annual Review of Nutrition. 15: 399–417. doi: 10.1146/annurev.nu.15.070195.002151. PMID 8527227. At this point, researchers have yet to determine if vitamin K1 or vitamin K2 are equally responsible for clotting or if one is any more effective than the other when it comes to blood clotting. Builds healthy bones
Zieman SJ, Melenovsky V, Kass DA (May 2005). "Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and therapy of arterial stiffness". Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 25 (5): 932–43. doi: 10.1161/01.atv.0000160548.78317.29. PMID 15731494. Based on animal studies and the role vitamin K2 plays in bone metabolism, it’s reasonable to assume that this nutrient affects dental health as well. The review noted that K2 showed the most promise, while also mentioning that much of the ingested K1 is transformed to K2 in the body ( 9). When you think of strong and healthy bones, you may be tempted to think of calcium as the main nutrient to prevent fractures and osteoporosis.
Proline-rich Gla-proteins (PRGP), transmembrane Gla-proteins (TMG), Gla-rich protein (GRP) and periostin. Their precise functions are still unknown.
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