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Ghilu S, Yilma Z, Banerjee S. Quality and marketing of milk and milk products in Ethiopia. Assessment of quality and marketing of milk and milk products in the central highland of Ethiopia. Lambert Acad Publ. 2012. Braem G, Stijlemans B, Van Haken W, De Vliegher S, De Vuyst L, Leroy F. Antibacterial activities of coagulase-negative staphylococci from bovine teat apex skin and their inhibitory effect on mastitis-related pathogens. J Appl Microbiol. 2014;116:1084–93. Lakew M, Tolosa T, Tigre W. Prevalence and major bacterial causes of bovine mastitis in Asella, South Eastern Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2009;41:1525–30.
Doyle CJ, Gleeson D, O’Toole PW, Cotter PD. Impacts of seasonal housing and teat preparation on raw milk microbiota: a high-throughput sequencing study. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2017;83:e02694-e12616. Kelly PT, O’Sullivan K, Berry DP, More SJ, Meaney WJ, O’Callaghan EJ, O’Brien B. Farm management factors associated with bulk tank total bacterial count in Irish dairy herds during 2006/07. Ir Vet J. 2006;62:36–42. Council Directive 92/46/EEC. Laying down the health rules for the production and placing on the market of raw milk, heat- treated milk and milk-based products. 2004.The correlation between TBC and CC (r = 0.5) in this study corroborated previous studies that reported a moderate to high correlation [ 13, 15, 56, 69]. This indicates that TBC could be used as a single microbiological hygienic indicator for total aerobic bacteria present in raw milk [ 15]. Consistent with our findings, previous studies associated dirty barns [ 16, 49], dirty cows [ 16, 56], and soiled udder and teats [ 7, 15, 61] with elevated TBCs in bulk milk. In the present study, season significantly associated with TBC, with higher counts during the wet season than during the dry season. This agrees with previous reports [ 8, 19, 66]. During rainy seasons, the udder and teats of dairy cows are soiled with feces and mud, which increase microbial contamination of milk [ 8]. Premilking udder preparation is essential to produce high-quality milk [ 5]. A teat cleaning procedure that includes wet cleaning followed by manual drying with a towel reduces microbial contamination in milk [ 7, 51]. In this study, herd size did not influence TBC, which agrees with reports from Myanmar [ 56] and the USA [ 17]. The absence of an association between herd size and TBC in this study could be attributed to small differences in the number of cows among the farms. Factors associated with the occurrence of S. aureus in farm bulk milk in the univariable logistic regression analysis were age of the farm owner ( P = 0.032), sex of the milker ( P = 0.058), barn cleanliness ( P = 0.003), cow cleanliness ( P = 0.003), udder cleanliness ( P = 0.002), milk utensil hygiene ( P = 0.004), herd size ( P = 0.197) and season ( P = 0.079).
The result of this study showed that the occurrence of S. aureus in bulk milk (42%) was high compared to previous reports from other parts of Ethiopia [ 26, 28, 54, 74], Uganda [ 75], Brazil [ 76], the USA [ 17] and China [ 77]. Our finding complies with previous reports from Ethiopia [ 27], Greece [ 70] and Italy [ 78]. In contrast, slightly higher S. aureus-occurrences of 66, 61, 54, 51, 48% were reported in Brazil [ 15], India [ 58], Portugal [ 73], Ireland [ 49] and the USA [ 79], respectively. The high occurrence of S. aureus in this study is concerning because many strains can produce enterotoxins and consequently cause food-borne intoxication in consumers [ 32]. The high occurrence of S. aureus in bulk milk in this study could be indicative of mastitis in the studied farms. S. aureus might have also contaminated bulk milk from human handlers, milk utensils, the environment, and the udder and teat skin of dairy cows [ 78]. The absence of premilking teat preparation is a risk factor for the presence of S. aureus in bulk milk [ 15]. Thus, it is important that mastitis is prevented and hygienic milk production practices are implemented to safeguard the public from staphylococcal food poisoning [ 78]. The detection of Staphylococcus or Corynebacterium in all quarter samples were consistent with other studies [ 2, 14, 15, 22]. The udder microbiota of the L-cows turned out to be highly dynamic and diverse with fluctuations between the relative abundance of genera from one sampling to the next. In the one case where an IMI was detected and accompanied by an increase in the relative abundance of Corynebacterium and Novosphingobium, a diverse microbiota composition had been reestablished by the next sampling. A different tendency was recorded for the H-cows. In quarters with an established IMI or a raised SCC due to dominance of one genus ( Staphylococcus or Corynebacterium), returning to a diverse microbiota composition turned out to be difficult, and the dominant genus was found to linger throughout the whole sampling period. Some quarters appear to be dominated by Corynebacterium or Staphylococcus, yet they were culture negative under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and have therefore not been labeled as having an IMI. This inconsistency between the 16S data and the culturing results is likely due to the inability of laboratory culturing methods to cultivate all bacteria in a sample. The criteria used to define a quarter sample as IMI positive in this study was chosen to identify as many IMIs as possible. Whilst definition “A” from Dohoo et al. [ 23] certainly achieves this, it can also introduce false positives to the dataset. To make up for this it would have been prudent to include species identification after plating on blood agar as an additional screening method for quarters with IMI. Olatoye O, Amosun A, Ogbu U, Okunlade Y. Bulk tank somatic cell count and associated microbial quality of milk from selected dairy cattle herds in Oyo state, Nigeria. Ital J Food Saf. 2018;7:95–100. Vairamuthu S, Sinnai J, Nagalingam K. Factors influencing production of hygienic raw milk by small scale dairy producers in selected areas of the Jaffna district, Sri Lanka. Trop Anim Health Prod. 2010;42:357–62.Milk is a very nutritious food in nature, playing an important role in human diets, but at the same time, it serves as an ideal medium for microbial growth, negatively affecting the health of consumers [ 1]. Raw milk, as it leaves the udders of healthy animals, contains very low numbers of microorganisms and is expected to be safe for human consumption. After secretion from udder, milk can be immediately contaminated by spoilage bacteria and pathogens from various sources, including animal faeces, soil, air, feed, water, bedding material, animal hide, infected udder, the exterior of udder and teats, milk containers and people [ 2, 3]. Ganda EK, Bisinotto RS, Lima SF, Kronauer K, Decter DH, Oikonomou G, Schukken YH, Bicalho RC. Longitudinal metagenomic profiling of bovine milk to assess the impact of intramammary treatment using a third-generation cephalosporin. Sci Rep. 2016;6:1–13. The study was conducted in Asella, Arsi zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. Asella is located at a latitude and longitude of 7°57ˈN and 39°7ˈE, respectively. Asella is the capital of Arsi zone and is located 175 km southeast of Addis Ababa in a highland plateau region at an elevation of 2430 m above sea level. Asella is categorized as having a subtropical highland climate with an annual mean rainfall and temperature of 1100 mm and 15.47 °C, respectively. The area experiences a bimodal rainfall pattern, with a short rainy season occurring during March and April and a long rainy season extending from June to September [ 35]. Arsi zone, especially Asella area, has a conducive climate for rearing specialized dairy breeds [ 34]. The area was where the first small-scale dairy development was initiated in Ethiopia in collaboration with Swedish government [ 36]. According to the Central Statistical Agency [ 37], Arsi zone has a cattle population of 2,904,201, which is the largest from the zones of the Oromia region. The zone has 692,724 heads of cows and 154,961cross breed cows. Study design and sampling technique Bava L, Zucali M, Sandrucci A, Brasca M, Vanoni L, Zanini L, Tamburini A. Effect of cleaning procedure and hygienic condition of milking equipment on bacterial count of bulk tank milk. J Dairy Res. 2011;78:211–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S002202991100001X.
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