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One enigmatic occurrence of Mosasaurus sp. fossils is in the Hornerstown Formation, a deposit typically dated to be from the Paleocene Danian age, which was immediately after the Maastrichtian age. The fossils were found in association with fossils of Squalicorax, Enchodus, and various ammonites within a uniquely fossil-rich bed at the base of the Hornerstown Formation known as the Main Fossiliferous Layer. This does not mean Mosasaurus and its associated fauna survived the K-Pg extinction. According to one hypothesis, the fossils may have originated from an earlier Cretaceous deposit and were reworked into the Paleocene formation during its early deposition. Evidence of reworking typically comes from fossils worn down due to further erosion during their exposure at the time of redeposition. Many of the Mosasaurus fossils from the Main Fossiliferous Layer consist of isolated bones commonly abraded and worn, but the layer also yielded better-preserved Mosasaurus remains. Another explanation suggests the Main Fossiliferous Layer is a Maastrichtian time-averaged remanié deposit, which means it originated from a Cretaceous deposit with winnowed low-sediment conditions. A third hypothesis proposes that the layer is a lag deposit of Cretaceous sediments forced out by a strong impact by a tsunami, and what remained was subsequently refilled with Cenozoic fossils. [2] See also [ edit ] M. maximus is a North American taxon Russell (1967) recognized as a distinct species. [38] It is now generally recognized as a junior synonym of M. hoffmannii, although some scientists maintain the taxon is a distinct species. [5] [7] Isolated bones suggest some M. hoffmannii may have exceeded the lengths of the Penza specimen. One such bone is a quadrate (NHMM 003892) which is 150% larger than the average size, which Everhart and colleagues in 2016 reported can be extrapolated to scale an individual around 18 meters (59ft) in length. It was not stated whether they applied Russell's 1967 ratio. [54]

In 1995, Lingham-Soliar studied the head musculature of M. hoffmannii. Because soft tissue like muscles do not easily fossilize, reconstruction of the musculature was largely based on the structure of the skull, muscle scarring on the skull, and the musculature in extant monitor lizards. [50] International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2012). "Article 8. What constitutes published work". International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (4thed.) . Retrieved July 16, 2021.

Introduction to the Mosasaurus

Mosasaurus is known from late Maastrichtian deposits in the Antarctic Peninsula, specifically the López de Bertodano Formation in Seymour Island. [85] Located within the polar circle at around 65°S, [104] temperatures at medium to large water depths would have been around 6°C (43°F) on average, while sea surface temperatures may have dropped below freezing and sea ice may have formed at times. [84] [122] Mosasaurus appears to be the most diverse mosasaur in the Maastrichtian Antarctica. At least two species of Mosasaurus have been described, but the true number of species is unknown as remains are often fragmentary and specimens are described in open nomenclature. These species include one comparable with M. lemonnieri, and another that appears to be closely related to M. hoffmannii. [85] M. sp. has also been described. However, it is possible that such specimens may actually represent Moanasaurus, although this depends on the outcome of a pending revision of the genus. [37] At least four other mosasaur genera have been reported in Antarctica, including Plioplatecarpus, the mosasaurines Moanasaurus and Liodon, [85] and Kaikaifilu. The validity of some of these genera is disputed as they are primarily based on isolated teeth. [123] Prognathodon and Globidens are also expected to be present based on distribution trends of both genera, although conclusive fossils have yet to be found. [85] Other Antarctic marine reptiles included elasmosaurid plesiosaurs like Aristonectes and another indeterminate elasmosaurid. [124] The fish assemblage of the López de Bertodano Formation was dominated by Enchodus and ichthyodectiformes. [125] Habitat preference [ edit ] Mosasaurus inhabited offshore ocean habitats of various depths. Many of the earliest fossils of Mosasaurus were found in Campanian stage deposits in North America, including the Western Interior Seaway, an inland sea which once flowed through what is now the central United States and Canada, and connected the Arctic Ocean to the modern-day Gulf of Mexico. The region was shallow for a seaway, reaching a maximum depth of about 800–900 meters (2,600–3,000ft). [108] Extensive drainage from the neighboring continents, Appalachia and Laramidia, brought in vast amounts of sediment. Together with the formation of a nutrient-rich deepwater mass from the mixing of continental freshwater, Arctic waters from the north, and warmer saline Tethyan waters from the south, this created a warm and productive seaway that supported a rich diversity of marine life. [109] [110] [111]

Main article: Research history of Mosasaurus Discovery and identification [ edit ] TM 7424, the first known specimen of M. hoffmannii a b T. Lynn Harrell Jr.; Alberto Pérez-Huerta; Celina A. Suarez (2016). "Endothermic mosasaurs? Possible thermoregulation of Late Cretaceous mosasaurs (Reptilia, Squamata) indicated by stable oxygen isotopes in fossil bioapatite in comparison with coeval marine fish and pelagic seabirds". Palaeontology. 59 (3): 351–363. Bibcode: 2016Palgy..59..351H. doi: 10.1111/pala.12240. S2CID 130190966. Cyrus C. Greene (2018). Osteohistology And Skeletochronology Of an Ontogenetic Series Of Clidastes (Squamata: Mosasauridae): Growth And Metabolism In Basal Mosasaurids (MS). Fort Hays State University. Dr. Nathalie Bardet, a marine reptile specialist from the Museum of Natural History in Paris, said, "I've worked on the mosasaurs of Morocco for more than 20 years, and I'd never seen anything like this before—I was both perplexed and amazed."a b c d e f g h i j k Dale A. Russell (1967). Systematics and morphology of American mosasaurs. Vol.23. New Haven: Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. p.240. OCLC 205385. MENG: It’s more stable, so you can apply more power on those teeth to handle your prey, to handle your food. The type species, M. hoffmannii, is one of the largest marine reptiles known, [50] [46] though knowledge of its skeleton remains incomplete as it is mainly known from skulls. [7] Russell (1967) wrote that the length of the jaw equalled one tenth of the body length in the species. [38] Based on this ratio, Grigoriev (2014) used the largest lower jaw attributed to M. hoffmannii (CCMGE 10/2469, also known as the Penza specimen; measuring 171 centimeters (67in) in length) to estimate a maximum length of 17.1 meters (56ft). [46] Using a smaller partial jaw ( NHMM 009002) measuring 90 centimeters (35in) and "reliably estimated at" 160 centimeters (63in) when complete, Lingham-Soliar (1995) estimated a larger maximum length of 17.6 meters (58ft) via the same ratio. [d] [50] No explicit justification for the 1:10 ratio was provided in Russell (1967), [38] and it has been considered to be probably overestimated by Cleary et al. (2018). [51] In 2014, Federico Fanti and colleagues alternatively argued that the total length of M. hoffmannii was more likely closer to seven times the length of the skull, which was based on a near-complete skeleton of the related species Prognathodon overtoni. The study estimated that an M. hoffmannii individual with a skull measuring more than 145cm (57in) would have been up to or more than 11 meters (36ft) in length and weighed 10 metric tons (11 short tons) in body mass. [52] Mentioning the Penza specimen, Gregory S. Paul estimated in his 2022 book, The Princeton Field Guide to Mesozoic Sea Reptiles, a shorter maximum length for M. hoffmannii of 13 meters (43ft) and a body mass of 5.5 metric tons (6.1 short tons). [53] The Penza specimen, one of the largest known fossils of Mosasaurus [46] James G. Ogg; Linda A. Hinnov (2012), "Cretaceous", in Felix M. Gradstein; James G. Ogg; Mark D. Schmitz; Gabi M. Ogg (eds.), The Geologic Time Scale, Oxford: Elsevier, pp.793–853, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00027-5, ISBN 978-0-444-59425-9, S2CID 127523816

a b David B. Kemp; Stuart A. Robinson; J. Alistair Crame; Jane E. Francis; Jon Ineson; Rowan J. Whittle; Vanessa Bowman; Charlotte O'Brien (2014). "A cool temperate climate on the Antarctic Peninsula through the latest Cretaceous to early Paleogene". Geology. 42 (7): 583–586. Bibcode: 2014Geo....42..583K. doi: 10.1130/g35512.1. Joseph Leidy (1864). Cretaceous Reptiles of the United States. Vol.14. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. pp.30–120. Michael J. Everhart (January 1, 2010). "Mosasaur brain". Oceans of Kansas. Archived from the original on November 6, 2020. The number of caudal vertebrae is not fully certain for M. conodon and M. hoffmannii. At least ten have been documented in M. conodon, while the count is completely unknown in M. hoffmannii. [11]

References

Richard Harlan (1839). "Notice of the discovery of Basilosaurus and Batrachiotherium". Proceedings of the Geological Society of London. 3: 23–24. a b c d e Eric Mulder (2004). Maastricht Cretaceous finds and Dutch pioneers in vertebrate palaeontology. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. pp.165–176. a b Gorden L. Bell Jr.; M. Amy Sheldon; James P. Lamb; James E. Martin (1996). "The first direct evidence of live birth in Mosasauridae (Squamata): Exceptional preservation in Cretaceous Pierre Shale of South Dakota". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 16 (suppl. to 3): 21A. doi: 10.1080/02724634.1996.10011371. William B. Gallagher (1984). "Paleoecology of the Delaware Valley region, Part II: Cretaceous to Quaternary". The Mosasaur. 2 (1): 9–43. Mosasaurs were the ocean's most dominant predator at the end of the Cretaceous period and lived across the world's oceans. Large mosasaurs would have likely eaten almost any kind of prey they were able to catch, including fish, sharks, sea birds and even other mosasaurs, according to the U.S. National Park Service. These mosasaurs were apex predators and could be compared to modern orcas, while other mosasaur species were more specialized feeders and adapted to eat shellfish, like modern sea otters, Live Science previously reported.

Erle G. Kauffman (2004). "Mosasaur Predation on Upper Cretaceous Nautiloids and Ammonites from the United States Pacific Coast" (PDF). PALAIOS. 19 (1): 96–100. Bibcode: 2004Palai..19...96K. doi: 10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0096:MPOUCN>2.0.CO;2. S2CID 130690035. a b c d Michael W. Caldwell; Gorden L. Bell Jr. (2005). "Of German princes and North American rivers: Harlan's lost mosasaur snout rediscovered". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences. 84 (3): 207–211. doi: 10.1017/S0016774600020989. a b c d e Paul, Gregory S. (2022). The Princeton Field Guide to Mesozoic Sea Reptiles. Princeton University Press. pp.175–176. ISBN 9780691193809. a b c Mike Everhart (October 21, 2013). "The Goldfuss Mosasaur". Oceans of Kansas. Archived from the original on June 2, 2019 . Retrieved November 10, 2019. a b Bruce M. Rothschild; Larry D. Martin (2005). "Mosasaur ascending: the phytogeny of bends". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences. 84 (Special Issue 3): 341–344. doi: 10.1017/S0016774600021120.a b Mark Witton (May 17, 2019). "The science of the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs, part 2: Teleosaurus, pterosaurs and Mosasaurus". Mark Witton.com. Archived from the original on June 3, 2019.

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