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Bergstrom, F. & Eriksson, J. Maintenance of non-consciously presented information engages the prefrontal cortex. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8, 938 (2014). This article presents evidence demonstrating nonconscious aspects of working memory. Mobbs, D. & Kim, J. J. Neuroethological studies of fear, anxiety, and risky decision-making in rodents and humans. Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci. 5, 8–15 (2015). This paper describes defensive behaviour in a neuroethological context.

Mobbs, D., Hagan, C. C., Dalgleish, T., Silston, B. & Prevost, C. The ecology of human fear: survival optimization and the nervous system. Front. Neurosci. 9, 55 (2015). Owings, D. H., Rowe, M. P. & Rundus, A. S. The rattling sound of rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis) as a communicative resource for ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) and burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia). J. Comp. Psychol. 116, 197–205 (2002). Weiskrantz L. Behavioral changes associated with ablation of the amygdaloid complex in monkeys. J Comp Physiol Psychol Gray JA. The Psychology of Fear and Stress vol. 2. Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1971. [ Google Scholar]Blanchard, D. C. & Blanchard, R. J. Innate and conditioned reactions to threat in rats with amygdaloid lesions. J. Dollard J, Miller NE. Personality and Psychotherapy: An Analysis in Terms of Learning, Thinking, and Culture. McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 1950. [ Google Scholar] LeDoux, J. E. Coming to terms with fear. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 2871–2878 (2014). This article provides a summary of the issues related to describing defensive behaviour in terms of fear versus threat processing. Despite such attempts at reformulation, these operational definitions of fear were not used consistently. For some, fear remained a conscious feeling. Mowrer, 10 for example, called for the return of consciousness to studies of animal behavior, arguing that rats freeze ‘by-cause of fear.' Contemporary researchers such as Panksepp 106, 107 argue that the conscious feeling of fear arises from the same circuits that control defensive behavior in both rats and humans. In this view, as in Mowrer's, freezing in rats should tell us about fearful feelings in people. However, even those who tried to define fear without reference to subjective states would use the term in more than one way. Bolles, 97 for example, called for care in the use of subjective state terms like fear because of the surplus meaning they possess, but also wrote about ‘frightened rats.' Bolles' student, and prominent ‘fear' researcher, Michael Fanselow says that a goal of science should be to ‘replace inaccurate subjective explanations… with more scientifically grounded explanations'. 104 Yet, he and other "fear" reserachers claim that freezing rats can help understand pathological fear (presumably subjectively expereinced fear) in humans. 20, 21, 102, 103, 105, 108, 109 Clearly, confusingly mixed meanings of the term fear were, and still are, in common use.

Everitt BJ, Parkinson JA, Olmstead MC, Arroyo M, Robledo P, Robbins TW. Associative processes in addiction and reward. The role of amygdala- ventral striatal subsystems. Ann N Y Acad Sci Haubensak W, Kunwar PS, Cai H, Ciocchi S, Wall NR, Ponnusamy R et al. Genetic dissection of an amygdala microcircuit that gates conditioned fear. Nature Everitt, B. J. & Robbins, T. W. Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsion. Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1481–1489 (2005). LeDoux J, Pine DS. Using neuroscience to help understand fear and anxiety: a two-system framework. Am J Psychiatry; advance online publication, 9 September; appiajp201616030353 [e-pub ahead of print]. [ PubMed]

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There is an important sense in which avoidance of danger and approach to safety are necessarily entwined—if safety is the absence of danger, avoidance is a source of safety. Thus, we believe that negative reinforcement resulting from removing threat and positive reinforcement from achieving safety are complimentary processes that may both contribute to avoidance learning, though perhaps in differing degrees. Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. Drug addiction: updating actions to habits to compulsions ten years on. Annu Rev Psychol