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a b Sanner T, Grimsrud TK (2015). "Nicotine: Carcinogenicity and Effects on Response to Cancer Treatment - A Review". Frontiers in Oncology. 5: 196. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2015.00196. PMC 4553893. PMID 26380225. Forest S (1 March 2010). "Controversy and evidence about nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy". MCN: The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing. 35 (2): 89–95. doi: 10.1097/NMC.0b013e3181cafba4. PMID 20215949. S2CID 27085986. https://www.heart.org/-/media/Files/About-Us/Policy-Research/Fact-Sheets/Tobacco-and-Clean-Air/Structural-Racism-and-Tobacco-Fact-Sheet.pdf Nicotine has been used as an insecticide since at least the 1960s, in the form of tobacco extracts [17] [48] [49] (although other components of tobacco also seem to have pesticide effects). [50] Nicotine pesticides have not been commercially available in the US since 2014, [51] and homemade pesticides are banned on organic crops [52] and caution is recommended for small gardeners. [53] Nicotine pesticides have been banned in the EU since 2009. [54] Foods are imported from countries in which nicotine pesticides are allowed, such as China, but foods may not exceed maximum nicotine levels. [54] [55] Neonicotinoids, such as imidacloprid, which are derived from and structurally similar to nicotine, are widely used as agricultural and veterinary pesticides as of 2016. [56] [48] Performance [ edit ] Sarter M (August 2015). "Behavioral-Cognitive Targets for Cholinergic Enhancement". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 4: 22–26. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.01.004. PMC 5466806. PMID 28607947.
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Royal College of Physicians. "Nicotine Without Smoke -- Tobacco Harm Reduction". p.125 . Retrieved 30 September 2020. Use of nicotine alone, in the doses used by smokers, represents little if any hazard to the user. If you want to stop smoking, several different treatments are available from shops, pharmacies and on prescription to help you beat your addiction and reduce withdrawal symptoms. a b Garcia AN, Salloum IM (October 2015). "Polysomnographic sleep disturbances in nicotine, caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, opioid, and cannabis use: A focused review". The American Journal on Addictions. 24 (7): 590–8. doi: 10.1111/ajad.12291. PMID 26346395. S2CID 22703103. The biosynthetic pathway of nicotine involves a coupling reaction between the two cyclic structures that comprise nicotine. Metabolic studies show that the pyridine ring of nicotine is derived from niacin (nicotinic acid) while the pyrrolidine is derived from N-methyl-Δ 1-pyrrollidium cation. [163] [164] Biosynthesis of the two component structures proceeds via two independent syntheses, the NAD pathway for niacin and the tropane pathway for N-methyl-Δ 1-pyrrollidium cation.
The nicotine content of popular American-brand cigarettes has increased over time, and one study found that there was an average increase of 1.78% per year between the years of 1998 and 2005. [186]
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It is not known whether nicotine replacement therapy is effective for smoking cessation in adolescents, as of 2014. [68] It is therefore not recommended to adolescents. [69] It is not safe to use nicotine during pregnancy or breastfeeding, although it is safer than smoking; the desirability of NRT use in pregnancy is therefore debated. [70] [71] [72]In the United States, nicotine products and Nicotine Replacement Therapy products like Nicotrol are only available to persons 18 and above; proof of age is required; not for sale in vending machine or from any source where proof of age cannot be verified. As of 2019, the minimum age to use tobacco in the US is 21 at the federal level. [191] It is unlikely that a person would overdose on nicotine through smoking alone. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) stated in 2013 that there are no significant safety concerns associated with the use of more than one form of over-the-counter (OTC) nicotine replacement therapy at the same time, or using OTC NRT at the same time as another nicotine-containing product, like cigarettes. [120] The median lethal dose of nicotine in humans is unknown. [42] [27] Nevertheless, nicotine has a relatively high toxicity in comparison to many other alkaloids such as caffeine, which has an LD 50 of 127mg/kg when administered to mice. [121] At sufficiently high doses, it is associated with nicotine poisoning, [39] which, while common in children (in whom poisonous and lethal levels occur at lower doses per kilogram of body weight [36]) rarely results in significant morbidity or death. [41] The estimated lower dose limit for fatal outcomes is 500–1,000mg of ingested nicotine for an adult (6.5–13mg/kg). [25] [27] The best treatment for you will depend on your personal preference, your age, whether you're pregnant or breastfeeding and any medical conditions you have. Speak to your GP or an NHS stop smoking adviser for advice.
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Dyspepsia, oropharyngeal irritation (e.g., coughing, irritation of the mouth and throat), rhinitis, and headache. a b Benowitz NL, Burbank AD (August 2016). "Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: Implications for electronic cigarette use". Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine. 26 (6): 515–23. doi: 10.1016/j.tcm.2016.03.001. PMC 4958544. PMID 27079891. Nicotine in tobacco can form carcinogenic tobacco-specific nitrosamines through a nitrosation reaction. This occurs mostly in the curing and processing of tobacco. However, nicotine in the mouth and stomach can react to form N-nitrosonornicotine, [110] a known type 1 carcinogen, [111] suggesting that consumption of non-tobacco forms of nicotine may still play a role in carcinogenesis. [112] Genotoxicity [ edit ]Kohlmeier KA (June 2015). "Nicotine during pregnancy: changes induced in neurotransmission, which could heighten proclivity to addict and induce maladaptive control of attention". Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease. 6 (3): 169–81. doi: 10.1017/S2040174414000531. PMID 25385318. S2CID 29298949.
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a b c Parrott AC (July 2015). "Why all stimulant drugs are damaging to recreational users: an empirical overview and psychobiological explanation" (PDF). Human Psychopharmacology. 30 (4): 213–24. doi: 10.1002/hup.2468. PMID 26216554. S2CID 7408200. Nicotine and cigarette smoke both induce the expression of liver enzymes (e.g., certain cytochrome P450 proteins) which metabolize drugs, leading to the potential for alterations in drug metabolism. [75]The estimated lower dose limit for fatal outcomes is 500–1,000mg of ingested nicotine for an adult (6.5–13mg/kg). [25] [27] Nicotine addiction involves drug-reinforced behavior, compulsive use, and relapse following abstinence. [28] Nicotine dependence involves tolerance, sensitization, [29] physical dependence, psychological dependence, [30] and can cause distress. [31] [32] Nicotine withdrawal symptoms include depressed mood, stress, anxiety, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances. [1] Mild nicotine withdrawal symptoms are measurable in unrestricted smokers, who experience normal moods only as their blood nicotine levels peak, with each cigarette. [33] On quitting, withdrawal symptoms worsen sharply, then gradually improve to a normal state. [33] Nicotine is addictive and the main psychoactive substance in tobacco, which means it alters how the brain works. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), most people who smoke use tobacco regularly due to nicotine addiction. Nicotine can be quantified in blood, plasma, or urine to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or to facilitate a medicolegal death investigation. Urinary or salivary cotinine concentrations are frequently measured for the purposes of pre-employment and health insurance medical screening programs. Careful interpretation of results is important, since passive exposure to cigarette smoke can result in significant accumulation of nicotine, followed by the appearance of its metabolites in various body fluids. [166] [167] Nicotine use is not regulated in competitive sports programs. [168] Methods for analysis of enantiomers [ edit ] Though tobacco smoking is associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease, [196] there is evidence that nicotine itself has the potential to prevent and treat Alzheimer's disease. [197] Tharp C (5 September 2014). "Safety for Homemade Remedies for Pest Control" (PDF). Montana Pesticide Bulletin. Montana State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 September 2014 . Retrieved 21 September 2020.
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