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Pfingstl, Tobias (30 September 2017). "The marine-associated lifestyle of ameronothroid mites (Acari, Oribatida) and its evolutionary origin: a review". Acarologia. 57 (3): 693–721. doi: 10.24349/acarologia/20174197. S2CID 90340235.

Dead zones, which are caused by excessive nutrient pollution, can lead to hypoxic conditions and severely impact fish populations.Gills are composed of thin filaments that are covered in tiny finger-like projections called lamellae. The large surface area of the filaments and lamellae provides a large area for gas exchange to occur. Slípka, J. (1 December 2003). "Palatine tonsils—are they branchiogenic organs?". International Congress Series. 1257: 71–74. doi: 10.1016/S0531-5131(03)01403-1. ISSN 0531-5131 . Retrieved 18 February 2022. However, these gills are reabsorbed before birth, and the animals rely on lungs for respiration after birth. The Process of Respiration in Gills

As water flows over the lamellae, oxygen diffuses from the water into the bloodstream of the fish, while carbon dioxide diffuses from the bloodstream into the water. This process is known as countercurrent exchange, which allows for efficient oxygen extraction. What is the structure of gills and how does it aid in oxygen extraction? As air is breathed in, oxygen diffuses across the thin walls of the air sacs and into the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the bloodstream and into the air.Werth, Alexander J. (2014). "Vestiges of the natural history of development: Historical holdovers reveal the dynamic interaction between ontogeny and phylogeny". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 7. doi: 10.1186/s12052-014-0012-5. S2CID 16350360. a b c d e f g h i Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp.316–327. ISBN 0-03-910284-X. Marine teleosts also use their gills to excrete osmolytes (e.g. Na⁺, Cl −). The gills' large surface area tends to create a problem for fish that seek to regulate the osmolarity of their internal fluids. Seawater contains more osmolytes than the fish's internal fluids, so marine fishes naturally lose water through their gills via osmosis. To regain the water, marine fishes drink large amounts of sea water while simultaneously expend energy to excrete salt through the Na +/K +-ATPase ionocytes (formerly known as mitochondrion-rich cells and chloride cells). [11] Conversely, freshwater has less osmolytes than the fish's internal fluids. Therefore, freshwater fishes must utilize their gill ionocytes to attain ions from their environment to maintain optimal blood osmolarity. [7] [11] Sharks and rays have five to seven pairs of gill slits located on the sides of their heads. Unlike most fish, they do not pump water over their gills, but instead rely on a process called “ram ventilation.” Gills usually consist of thin filaments of tissue, branches, or slender tufted processes that have a highly folded surface to increase surface area. The high surface area is crucial to the gas exchange of aquatic organisms as water contains only a small fraction of the dissolved oxygen that air does. A cubic meter of air contains about 250 grams of oxygen at STP. The concentration of oxygen in water is lower than air and it diffuses more slowly. In a litre of freshwater the oxygen content is 8cm 3 per litre compared to 210 in the same volume of air. [8] Water is 777 times more dense than air and is 100 times more viscous. [8] Oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. [8] The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water would not be efficient enough to sustain life. [8] Rather than using lungs "Gaseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularised gills over which a one-way current of water is kept flowing by a specialised pumping mechanism. The density of the water prevents the gills from collapsing and lying on top of each other, which is what happens when a fish is taken out of water." [8]