The Last Days of the Ottoman Empire

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Constantine XI had died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed Murad, became a personal favourite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumeli (the Balkans). The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, Bayezid II. [106] Sakaoğlu, Necdet (1993–94). "İstanbul'un adları" [The names of Istanbul]. Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Istanbul: Türkiye Kültür Bakanlığı. Byzantium is a term used by modern historians to refer to the later Roman Empire. In its own time, the Empire ruled from Constantinople (or "New Rome" as some people call it, although this was a laudatory expression that was never an official title) and was simply considered as "the Roman Empire." The fall of Constantinople led competing factions to lay claim to being the inheritors of the Imperial mantle. Russian claims to Byzantine heritage clashed with those of the Ottoman Empire's own claim. In Mehmed's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, declaring himself Kayser-i Rum, literally " Caesar of Rome", that is, of the Roman Empire, though he was remembered as "the Conqueror". Crowley, Roger (2005). 1453: The Holy War for Constantinople and the Clash of Islam and the West. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-4013-0558-1. The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totalling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners. [note 4] At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area. [48] :32 [note 5] Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople working for the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery pieces, which in the end proved ineffective. The rest of the citizens repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers.

Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks. Wayne State University Press. 15 January 1975. ISBN 978-0-8143-1540-8 . Retrieved 15 January 2023– via Google Books. a b c Michael Angold, The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans: Context and Consequences (Routledge, 2012), pp. 150–152, 163. Geographical Record". Geographical Review. 11 (4): 611–629. 1921. ISSN 0016-7428. JSTOR 208254. Less excusable still is the treatment accorded to the statements of Kritopoulos, that 4,500 were killed at the fall of Constantinople. a b c Hammer, Paul E. J. (2017). Warfare in Early Modern Europe 1450–1660. Routledge. p.511. ISBN 978-1-351-87376-5. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019 . Retrieved 9 September 2019. The latter question had grown ever more intractable as, decade after decade, vast numbers of Muslim refugees arrived in Anatolia from the empire’s crumbling outer regions, fleeing rapes, mass killings, starvation and forced conversions. Within the first few weeks of the Greek war of independence in 1821, the rebels massacred 20,000 local Muslims. Russia’s conquest of the north Caucasus displaced perhaps a million; the end of the Balkan war in 1913, more than half a million more.Eparkhos and Diplovatatzes, two refugees whose accounts has become garbled through multiple translations Setton, Kenneth M. (1978). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571): The Fifteenth Century. Vol.2. DJane Publishing. ISBN 0-87169-127-2. Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city's name "Qosṭanṭīniyye" (القسطنطينية) or "Kostantiniyye", as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. Islambol ( اسلامبول, Full of Islam) or Islambul ( find Islam) or Islam(b)ol ( old Turkic: be Islam), both in Turkish, were folk-etymological adaptations of Istanbul created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Mehmed II himself. [120] By the end of 1918, after four increasingly grim years of warfare, revolution was in the air across Europe. Thrones wobbled; rulers abdicated. In the space of months, the great, centuries-old dynasties of the Romanovs, Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns were all toppled from power. When a new Sultan was crowned, his brothers would be imprisoned. When the Sultan’s first son was born, his brothers and their sons would be killed. This system ensured that the rightful heir would take the throne.

Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople 1453. Cambridge University Press. p.147. ISBN 978-0-521-39832-9. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020 . Retrieved 23 September 2020. Giacomo Languschi, whose account is embedded in the Venetian chronicle of Zorzi Dolfin, had access to eyewitnesses a b c Buc, Philippe (14 March 2020). "One among many renegades: the Serb janissary Konstantin Mihailović and the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans". Journal of Medieval History. 46 (2): 217–230. doi: 10.1080/03044181.2020.1719188. ISSN 0304-4181. S2CID 214527543.

The fall of Constantinople, also known as the conquest of Constantinople, was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Empire. The city was captured on 29 May 1453 as part of the culmination of a 53-day siege which had begun on 6 April.

a b c d e Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). La Caduta di Costantinopoli, I: Le testimonianze dei contemporanei. (Scrittori greci e latini)[ The Fall of Constantinople, I: The Testimony of the Contemporary Greek and Latin Writers] (in Italian). Vol.I. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. Sykes-Picot AgreementRead about the Sykes-Picot Agreement, one of the agreements that partitioned the Ottoman Empire and helped determine the political and cultural boundaries of the modern Middle East.

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Nadia Maria El-Cheikh (2004). Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs. Harvard CMES. ISBN 978-0-932885-30-2– via Google Books.