LE BIOETHANOL DE SECONDE GENERATION. LA PRODUCTION D'ETHANOL A PARTIR DE BIOMASSE LIGNOCELLULOSIQUE: La production d'éthanol à partir de biomasse lignocellulosique

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Carroll, Andrew; Somerville, Chris (June 2009). "Cellulosic Biofuels". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 60 (1): 165–182. doi: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.043008.092125. PMID 19014348. Xu F, Yu J, Tesso T, Dowell F, Wang D (2013) Qualitative and quantitative analysis of lignocellulosic biomass using infrared techniques: a mini-review. Appl Energy 104:801–809 La valorisation s’effectue par conversion biologique, donc soit par fermentation ou par distillation.

Xu G, Jiang H, Zhang Y, Korpelainen H, Li C (2013) Effect of warming on extracted soil carbon pools of Abies faxoniana forest at two elevations. For Ecol Manage 310:357–365 Hemicellulose Lignine Cellulose Bioéthanol : le contexte (4) Les polymères pariétaux de la biomasse lignocellulosique Séminaire Agrocarburants et développement durable – Grenoble, 28-29/01/2008 Pineda-López MR, Ortega-Solis R, Sánchez-Velásquez LR, Ortiz-Ceballos G, Vázquez-Domínguez G (2013) Population structure of Abies religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. et Cham., in the ejido El Conejo of the national park Cofre de Perote, Veracruz, Mexico (in Spanish). Rev Chapingo Ser Ciencias For y del Ambient 19:375–385 Whittaker RH (1978) Direct gradient analysis: techniques. In: Whittaker RH (ed) Handbook of vegetation science 5. Ordination and classification of communities. Dr Junk W. Springer, The Hague, pp 9–51Barbara A. Tokay "Biomass Chemicals" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi: 10.1002/14356007.a04_099

Without prejudice to Articles 107 and 108 TFEU, policies supporting renewable energy should be predictable and stable and should avoid frequent or retroactive changes. Policy unpredictability and instability have a direct impact on capital financing costs, on the costs of project development and therefore on the overall cost of deploying renewable energy in the Union. Member States should prevent the revision of any support granted to renewable energy projects from having a negative impact on their economic viability. In that context, Member States should promote cost-effective support policies and ensure their financial sustainability. Moreover, a long-term indicative schedule covering the main aspects of the expected support should be published, without affecting the ability of Member States to decide on budget allocation in the years covered by the schedule. The coherence between the objectives of this Directive and the Union's other environmental law should be ensured. In particular, during assessment, planning or licensing procedures for renewable energy installations, Member States should take account of all Union environmental law and the contribution made by energy from renewable sources towards meeting environmental and climate change objectives, in particular when compared to non-renewable energy installations. It is appropriate to allow the consumer market for renewable electricity to contribute to the development of energy from renewable sources. Member States should therefore require electricity suppliers who disclose their energy mix to final customers pursuant to Union law on the internal market for electricity, or who market energy to consumers with a reference to the consumption of energy from renewable sources, to use guarantees of origin from installations producing energy from renewable sources. One barrier to the production of ethanol from biomass is that the sugars necessary for fermentation are trapped inside the lignocellulose. Lignocellulose has evolved to resist degradation and to confer hydrolytic stability and structural robustness to the cell walls of the plants. This robustness or "recalcitrance" is attributable to the crosslinking between the polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) and the lignin via ester and ether linkages. [17] Ester linkages arise between oxidized sugars, the uronic acids, and the phenols and phenylpropanols functionalities of the lignin. To extract the fermentable sugars, one must first disconnect the celluloses from the lignin, and then use acid or enzymatic methods to hydrolyze the newly freed celluloses to break them down into simple monosaccharides. Another challenge to biomass fermentation is the high percentage of pentoses in the hemicellulose, such as xylose, or wood sugar. Unlike hexoses such as glucose, pentoses are difficult to ferment. The problems presented by the lignin and hemicellulose fractions are the foci of much contemporary research. Some chemicals could be obtained from lignocellulosic biomass. Almost all are derived from the sugars obtained by hydrolysis of the cellulose component. [19]

D. M. Alonso; J. Q. Bond; J. A. Dumesic (2010). "Catalytic Conversion of Biomass to Biofuels". Green Chem. 12 (9): 1493-1513. doi: 10.1039/c004654j. Member States should be encouraged to pursue all appropriate forms of cooperation in relation to the objectives set out in this Directive and to inform citizens about the benefits stemming from the use of cooperation mechanisms. Such cooperation can take place at all levels, bilaterally or multilaterally. Apart from the mechanisms which have an effect on target renewable energy share calculation and target compliance, and which are exclusively provided for in this Directive, namely statistical transfers between Member States –whether put in place bilaterally or through the URDP – joint projects and joint support schemes, cooperation can also take the form of, for example, exchanges of information and best practices, as provided for, in particular, in the e-platform established by Regulation (EU) 2018/1999, and other voluntary coordination between all types of support schemes. Brandt A, Gräsvik J, Hallett JP, Welton T (2013) Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass with ionic liquids. Green Chem 15:550–583 Guarantees of origin issued for the purposes of this Directive have the sole function of showing to a final customer that a given share or quantity of energy was produced from renewable sources. A guarantee of origin can be transferred, independently of the energy to which it relates, from one holder to another. However, with a view to ensuring that a unit of renewable energy is disclosed to a customer only once, double counting and double disclosure of guarantees of origin should be avoided. Energy from renewable sources in relation to which the accompanying guarantee of origin has been sold separately by the producer should not be disclosed or sold to the final customer as energy from renewable sources. It is important to distinguish between green certificates used for support schemes and guarantees of origin. a b Zeng, Yining; Himmel, Michael E.; Ding, Shi-You (2017-11-30). "Visualizing chemical functionality in plant cell walls". Biotechnology for Biofuels. 10 (1): 263. doi: 10.1186/s13068-017-0953-3. ISSN 1754-6834. PMC 5708085. PMID 29213316.

While Directive 2005/36/EC lays down requirements for the mutual recognition of professional qualifications, including for architects, there is also a need to ensure that planners and architects properly consider an optimal combination of renewable energy and high-efficiency technologies in their plans and designs. Member States should therefore provide clear guidance in that regard. This should be done without prejudice to that Directive and in particular Articles 46 and 49 thereof. Gasoline Diesel Gasoline Diesel World USA Bioéthanol: le contexte (2) Vehicle Fuel demand: unbalance in favour of diesel oil ... in EU • La taille de ce cinquième niveau est étudiée pour servir éventuellement de légende aux photos. Diesel oil Mtons Gasoline Source: Petroleum Economics Ltd Une demande en essence toujours forte au niveau mondial Séminaire Agrocarburants et développement durable – Grenoble, 28-29/01/2008 Osborne PL (2012) Tropical ecosystems and ecological concepts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge lignin is a heterogeneous, highly crosslinked polymer akin to phenol-formaldehyde resins. It is derived from 3-4 monomers, the ratio of which varies from species to species. The crosslinking is extensive. Being rich in aromatics, lignin is hydrophobic and relatively rigid. Lignin confers structural integrity to plants. Lignin is so heterogeneous and so recalcitrant that its value is almost exclusively measured as a fuel.Hoch G, Körner C (2012) Global patterns of mobile carbon stores in trees at the high-elevation tree line. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 21:861–871 To create opportunities for reducing the cost of meeting the Union target laid down in this Directive and to give flexibility to Member States to comply with their obligation not to fall below their 2020 national targets after 2020, it is appropriate both to facilitate the consumption in Member States of energy produced from renewable sources in other Member States, and to enable Member States to count energy from renewable sources consumed in other Member States towards their own renewable energy share. For that reason, the Commission should put in place a Union renewable development platform (‘URDP’), enabling trading renewable energy shares between Member States, in addition to bilateral cooperation agreements. The URDP is intended to complement the voluntary opening of support schemes to projects located in other Member States. The agreements between Member States include statistical transfers, joint projects between Member States or joint support schemes. E. Palmqvist; B. Hahn-Hagerdal (2000). "Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Hydrolysates. II: inhibitors and Mechanisms of Inhibition". Bioresour. Technol. 74: 25-33. doi: 10.1016/S0960-8524(99)00161-3. Moreover, the band 1660 cm −1 showed the biggest change along the altitudinal gradient, increasing mostly at the lower end (3000 masl) and decreasing at 3200 and 3100 masl. Also, the PC3 of the FTIR spectra consisted of the bands 1735 and 1660 cm −1 described above. It also differed significantly, decreasing mostly toward 3200 masl, which suggests that the carbonyl functional groups vary along the altitudinal gradient possibly by environmental conditions from this altitudinal level, and these functional groups are, in turn, within hemicellulose and lignin polymers. The variations in carbonyl groups related with hemicelluloses and lignin found by the FTIR spectroscopic analysis using PCA agree with the findings in the analysis of fibers, and partly with our hypothesis. To ensure that national measures for developing renewable heating and cooling are based on comprehensive mapping and analysis of the national renewable and waste energy potential and that such measures provide for increased integration of renewable energy, by supporting, inter alia, innovative technologies such as heat pumps, geothermal and solar thermal technologies, and waste heat and cold, it is appropriate to require that Member States carry out an assessment of their potential of energy from renewable sources and the use of waste heat and cold in the heating and cooling sector, in particular to promote energy from renewable sources in heating and cooling installations and promote competitive and efficient district heating and cooling. To ensure consistency with energy efficiency requirements for heating and cooling and reduce administrative burden, that assessment should be included in the comprehensive assessments carried out and notified in accordance with Article 14 of Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council ( 12).